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a mildness and tameness of the desires； which is itself only an accident of Nature — mere caprice
like the former。 — That one is therefore only a Despot； not a free man。 The consciousness of
Freedom first arose among the Greeks； and therefore they were free； but they； and the Romans
likewise； knew only that some are free； — not man as such。 Even Plato and Aristotle did not know
this。 The Greeks； therefore； had slaves； and their whole life and the maintenance of their splendid
liberty； was implicated with the institution of slavery： a fact moreover； which made that liberty on
the one hand only an accidental； transient and limited growth； on the other hand； constituted it a
rigorous thraldom of our mon nature — of the Human。 The German nations； under the
influence of Christianity； were the first to attain the consciousness； that man； as man； is free： that it
is the freedom of Spirit which constitutes its essence。 This consciousness arose first in religion； the
inmost region of Spirit； but to introduce the principle into the various relations of the actual world；
involves a more extensive problem than its simple implantation； a problem whose solution and
application require a severe and lengthened process of culture。 In proof of this； we may note that
slavery did not cease immediately on the reception of Christianity。 Still less did liberty predominate
in States； or Governments and Constitutions adopt a rational organisation； or recognise freedom
as their basis。 That application of the principle to political relations； the thorough moulding and
interperation of the constitution of society by it； is a process identical with history itself。 I have
already directed attention to the distinction here involved； between a principle as such； and
its…application； i。e。 its introduction and carrying out in the actual phenomena of Spirit and Life。
This is a point of fundamental importance in our science； and one which must be constantly
respected as essential。 And in the same way as this distinction has attracted attention in view of the
Christian principle of self…consciousness — Freedom； it also shows itself as an essential one； in
view of the principle of Freedom generally。 The History of the world is none other than the
progress of the consciousness of Freedom； a progress whose development according to the
necessity of its nature； it is our business to investigate。
§ 22
The general statement given above； of the various grades in the consciousness of Freedom — and
which we applied in the first instance to the fact that the Eastern nations knew only that one is free；
the Greek and Roman world only that some are free； whilst we know that all men absolutely （man
as man） are free； — supplies us with the natural division of Universal History； and suggests the
mode of its discussion。 This is remarked； however； only incidentally and anticipatively； some other
ideas must be first explained。
§ 23
The destiny of the spiritual World； and； — since this is the substantial World； while the physical
remains subordinate to it； or； in the language of speculation； has no truth as against the spiritual；
— the final cause of the World at large； we allege to be the consciousness of its own freedom on
the part of Spirit； and ipso facto； the reality of that freedom。 But that this term “Freedom；”
without further qualification； is an indefinite； and incalculable ambiguous term； and that while that
which it represents is the ne plus ultra of attainment； it is liable to an infinity of misunderstandings；
confusions and errors； and to bee the occasion for all imaginable excesses； — has never been
more clearly known and felt than in modern times。 Yet； for the present； we must content ourselves
with the term itself without farther definition。 Attention was also directed to the importance of the
infinite difference between a principle in the abstract； and its realisation in the concrete。 In the
process before us； the essential nature of freedom … which involves in it absolute necessity； — is to
be displayed as ing to a consciousness of itself （for it is in its very nature； self…consciousness）
and thereby realising its existence。 Itself is its own object of attainment； and the sole aim of Spirit。
This result it is； at which the process of the World's History has been continually aiming； and to
which the sacrifices that have ever and anon been laid on the vast altar of the earth； through the
long lapse of ages； have been offered。 This is the only aim that sees itself realised and fulfilled； the
only pole of repose amid the ceaseless change of events and conditions； and the sole efficient
principle that pervades them。 This final aim is God's purpose with the world； but God is the
absolutely perfect Being； and can； therefore； will nothing other than himself — his own Will。 The
Nature of His Will — that is； His Nature itself — is what we here call the Idea of Freedom；
translating the language of Religion into that of Thought。 The question； then； which we may next
put； is： What means does this principle of Freedom use for its realisation？ This is the second point
we have to consider。
（2） The Means Spirit Uses to Realise Its Idea
§ 24
The question of the means by which Freedom develops itself to a World； conducts us to the
phenomenon of History itself。 Although Freedom is； primarily； an undeveloped idea； the means it
uses are external and phenomenal； presenting themselves in History to our sensuous vision。 The
first glance at History convinces us that the actions of men proceed from their needs； their
passions； their characters and talents； and impresses us with the belief that such needs； passions
and interests are the sole springs of action — the efficient agents in this scene of activity。 Among
these may； perhaps； be found aims of a liberal or universal kind — benevolence it may be； or noble
patriotism； but such virtues and general views are but insignificant as pared with the World
and its doings。 We may perhaps see the Ideal of Reason actualised in those who adopt such aims；
and within the sphere of their influence； but they bear only a trifling proportion to the mass of the
human race； and the extent of that influence is limited accordingly。 Passions； private aims； and the
satisfaction of selfish desires； are on the other hand； most effective springs of action。 Their power
lies in the fact that they respect none of the limitations which justice and morality would impose on
them； and that these natural impulses have a more direct influence over man than the artificial and
tedious discipline that tends to order and self…restraint； law and morality。 When we look at this
display of passions； and the consequences of their violence； the Unreason which is associated not
；only with them； but even （rather we might say especially） with good designs and righteous aims；
when we see the evil； the vice； the ruin that has befallen the most flourishing kingdoms which the
mind of man ever created； we can scarce avoid being filled with sorrow at this universal taint of
corruption： and； since this decay is not the work of mere Nature； but of the Human Will — a moral
embitterment — a revolt of the Good Spirit （if it have a place within us） may well be the result of
our reflections。 Without rhetorical exaggeration； a simply truthful bination of the miseries that
have overwhelmed the noblest of nations and polities； and the finest exemplars of private virtue； —
forms a picture of most fearful aspect； and excites emotions of the profoundest and most hopeless
sadness； counter…balanced by no consolatory result。 We endure in beholding it a mental torture；
allowing no defence or escape but the consideration that what has happened could not be
otherwise； that it is a fatality which no intervention could alter。 And at last we draw back from the
intolerable disgust with which these sorrowful reflections threaten us； into the more agreeable
environment of our individual life — the Present formed by our private aims and interests。 In short
we retreat into the selfishnes